It has been argued that the bombing was against well-defined targets, albeit in the middle of the city, and would have assisted the advancing German Army. General LeMay, commander of XXI Bomber Command, instead switched to mass firebombing night attacks from altitudes of around 7,000 feet (2,100 m) on the major conurbations. Where are the world's most war-damaged cities? - The Guardian This bomb's effects killed roughly 39,00080,000 people,[255] including roughly 23,00028,000 Japanese war industry employees, an estimated 2,000 Korean forced workers, and at least 150 Japanese soldiers. The new bombing policy was officially ordered by Churchill at the start of December, on condition it receive no publicity and be considered an experiment. In the absence of specific laws relating to aerial warfare, the belligerents' aerial forces at the start of World War II used the 1907 Hague Conventions signed and ratified by most major powers as the customary standard to govern their conduct in warfare, and these conventions were interpreted by both sides to allow the indiscriminate bombing of enemy cities throughout the war.[48]. Birmingham was the second most heavily bombed city in the country. ", When the war began on 1 September 1939 with Germany's invasion of Poland, Franklin D. Roosevelt, President of the neutral United States, issued an appeal to the major belligerents (Britain, France, Germany, and Poland) to confine their air raids to military targets, and "under no circumstances undertake bombardment from the air of civilian populations in unfortified cities"[58] The British and French agreed to abide by the request, with the British reply undertaking to "confine bombardment to strictly military objectives upon the understanding that these same rules of warfare will be scrupulously observed by all their opponents". Prime Minister Baron Kantar Suzuki reported to U.S. military authorities it "seemed to me unavoidable that in the long run Japan would be almost destroyed by air attack so that merely on the basis of the B-29s alone I was convinced that Japan should sue for peace. The day after the attack, President Franklin D . The United States began effective strategic bombing of Japan in late 1944, when B-29s began operating from Guam and Tinian in the Marianas Islands. Some 3,300 houses were destroyed, and 10,000 were damaged. The first true practical demonstrations were on the night of 28 to 29 March 1942, when 234 aircraft bombed the ancient Hanseatic port of Lbeck. [143] By the last week of August, over half the missions were flown under the cover of dark. US air raids on Japan escalated from October 1944[37] culminating in widespread firebombing and, in August 1945, the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki. "The Miami Daily News, Saturday 11 May 1940", The Milwaukee Journal, Monday 20 May 1940, St Petersburg Times, Wednesday 17 July 1940, Quester, George "Bargaining and Bombing During World War II in Europe", World Politics, Vol. [219], Throughout 1943, the Soviets attempted to give the impression of cooperation between their bombers and those of the West. The purpose of the area bombardment of cities was laid out in a British Air Staff paper, dated 23 September 1941: The ultimate aim of an attack on a town area is to break the morale of the population which occupies it. It has been estimated that between May 1964 and 26 February 1973 some 2.26 million tonnes (5 billion lb) of bombs of all kinds were dropped along the North to South Ho Chi Minh Trail supply route to South Vietnam. The only attack on a mainland American military site during World War II occurred on June 21, 1942, on the Oregon coastline. 6 min read. Two crews were captured by the Japanese. British workers continued to work throughout the war and food and other basic supplies were available throughout. [38][39][40][41] Although they did not produce decisive military victories in themselves, some argue that strategic bombing of non-military targets significantly reduced enemy industrial capacity and production[42][43] and was vindicated by the surrender of Japan. In all, three people were killed and damage was minor. Italy drought reveals WWII bomb in waters of River Po - NBC News [54], Before World War II began, the rapid pace of aviation technology created a belief that groups of bombers would be capable of devastating cities. It contained full-scale replicas of German residential homes. [114] In 2022, archival research showed a total of 1,150 to 1,250 civilians, and Dutch army and Nazi army personnel were killed during the Rotterdam Blitz. [219] Helsinki was struck by 733 bombers on the night of 67 February, by 367 on the 1516th and 850 on the 2526th. The military objective, where it exists, seems to take a completely second place. It is also stressed that every effort should be made to avoid unnecessary loss of life amongst the civilian population. atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki, during World War II, American bombing raids on the Japanese cities of Hiroshima (August 6, 1945) and Nagasaki (August 9, 1945) that marked the first use of atomic weapons in war. The British bomber crews had intended to bomb the Haagse Bos ("Forest of the Hague") district where the Germans had installed V-2 launching facilities that had been used to attack British cities. [76] In addition, it was to support the advance of German ground forces through direct tactical and indirect air support with attacks against Polish mobilisation centres and thus delay an orderly Polish strategic concentration of forces and to deny mobility for Polish reinforcements through the destruction of strategic Polish rail routes. They are not by-products of attempts to hit factories. Between July 1943 and March 1944 there were no further increases in the output of aircraft. This included raids such as those on the Renault factory in Boulogne-Billancourt in March 1942 or the port facilities of Nantes in September 1943 (which killed 1,500 civilians). So be it. 50,000 civilians in the 1939 campaign (including artillery bombardment and ground fighting). [48], Article 25 of the 1899 and 1907 Hague Conventions on Land Warfare also did not provide a clear guideline on the extent to which civilians may be spared; the same can be held for naval forces. The Germans and the Italians flew a total of 3,000 bombing raids in the two-year span, making the small island unofficially the most bombed place in the world. The Imperial Japanese Navy also carried out a carrier-based airstrike on the neutral United States at Pearl Harbor and Oahu on 7 December 1941, resulting in almost 2,500 fatalities and plunging America into World War II the next day. The first successful firebombing raid was on Kobe on 3 February 1945, and following its relative success the USAAF continued the tactic. This was another reasons for the Allies to perform airstrikes on Dutch soil, leading to one of the deadliest civilian airstrikes in the Netherlands. When they declare they will attack our cities in great measure, we will eradicate their cities. the destruction of houses, public utilities, transport and lives, the creation of a refugee problem on an unprecedented scale, and the breakdown of morale both at home and at the battle fronts by fear of extended and intensified bombing, are accepted and intended aims of our bombing policy. Bob Golan, Jacob Howland, Bette Howland, (2005). [255] The death toll included an estimated 20,000 Korean slave laborers and 20,000 Japanese soldiers and destroyed 48,000 buildings (including the headquarters of the Second General Army and Fifth Division). The bombing of Ploieti on 1 August 1943 (Operation Tidal Wave) was a far more serious affair. While a perfect strategic location, it was also a difficult place . The Germans also built large-scale night-time decoys like the Krupp decoy site (German: Kruppsche Nachtscheinanlage) which was a German decoy-site of the Krupp steel works in Essen. [188] In the fall of 1944, only seven percent of all bombs dropped by the Eighth Air Force hit within 1,000 feet of their aim point. These Strangriffe ("nuisance raids") were used to train bomber crews in both day and night attacks, to test defences and try out methods. [64] The British changed their policy on 15 May 1940, one day after the German bombing of Rotterdam, when the RAF was given permission to attack targets in the Ruhr Area, including oil plants and other civilian industrial targets which aided the German war effort, such as blast furnaces that at night were self-illuminating. March 26, 2014 Watch the US Drop 2.5 Million Tons of Bombs on Laos Picturing the deadly legacy of America's secret war in the world's most bombed-out country. Lindemann was liked and trusted by Winston Churchill, who appointed him the British government's leading scientific adviser with a seat in the Cabinet. Half a million Soviet citizens, for example, died from German bombing during the invasion and occupation of Russia. Reproduced with permission in, British historian Richard Overy considers the 500,000 order of magnitude, claimed after the war in Soviet publications, to be "a rhetorical statistic, to demonstrate the level of sacrifice of the Soviet people and the wickedness of the German enemy". Thirteen B-24 Liberator heavy bombers under the command of Col. Harry A. Halverson from Fayid, Egypt dropped eight bombs into the Black Sea, two onto Constana, six onto Ploieti, six onto Teiani, and several onto Ciofliceni. [219] In total, 7,158 Soviet aircraft dropped 6,700 tonnes of bombs on Germany during the war, 3.1% of Soviet bomber sorties, 0.5% of all Allied "strategic" sorties against German-occupied territory and 0.2% of all bombs dropped on it. The Americans had attained complete air supremacy. The World War Two Siege of Malta took place from 1940 to 1942. There Are Still Thousands of Tons of Unexploded Bombs in Germany, Left There was no exception; even Pursuit Brigade, an organic part of the defences of the Polish capital, Warsaw, was transferred to Lublin, one week into the war. It was the most destructive conventional raid, and the deadliest single bombing raid of any kind in terms of lives lost, in all of military aviation history,[246] even when the missions on Hiroshima and Nagasaki are taken as single events. At the time, the neighbourhood was more densely populated than usual with evacuees from The Hague and Wassenaar; 532 residents were killed[192][193] and approximately 30,000 were left homeless.[194][195]. Giulio Gavotti dropped 1.5 kg of bombs on Ain Zara, a village 8 km west of the capital Tripoli. [162] The He 177A went into service in April 1942, despite an ongoing series of engine fires in the small batch of A-0 series production prototype aircraft. The Blitz was underway. [41] However, attacks on the infrastructure were taking place. Strategic bombing during World War II began on 1 September 1939 when Germany invaded Poland and the Luftwaffe (German Air Force) began bombing Polish cities and the civilian population in an aerial bombardment campaign. The Soviets sent a total of 549 long-range bombers over German territory in all of 1941. Lord Cranborne, the British Under-Secretary of State For Foreign Affairs, expressed his indignation in his own declaration. [55], The first was based on the Just War theory and emphasized that noncombatants possess an inherent right to be spared from the harm of war and should not be intentionally targeted. [139][140] While agreeing in general with prior Just War theoretical postulates, he came to a conclusion that a grave threat to a moral order would justify the use of an indiscriminate force.[55]. Within Asia, the majority of strategic bombing was carried out by the Japanese and the US. [219] There were 1,114 sorties over Germany in 1942. The cities of Amsterdam, Breskens, Den Helder, Rotterdam, and The Hague suffered immense losses in civilians and bombing damage by insufficiently accurate aiming. [106] The Germans retaliated with a naval raid. Cmpina was more severely damaged. While accuracy improved during the war, Survey studies show that, overall, only about 20% of the bombs aimed at precision targets fell within this target area. [83], On 13 September, following orders of the ObdL to launch an attack on Warsaw's Jewish Quarter, justified as being for unspecified crimes committed against German soldiers but probably in response to a recent defeat by Polish ground troops,[84] and intended as a terror attack,[85] 183 bomber sorties were flown with 50:50 load of high explosive and incendiary bombs, reportedly set the Jewish Quarter ablaze. BERLIN (1940-1945) - 20,000 to 50,000 deaths. [9] Balkan War [127], Despite the British attacks on German cities, the Luftwaffe did not begin to attack military and economic targets in the UK until six weeks after the campaign in France was concluded. [33] Hitler himself hoped that the bombing of London would terrorize the population into submission. 3 (Apr. [231] Over 160,000 Allied airmen and 33,700 planes were lost in the European theatre.[232][vague]. [196][197] Around 100 civilians were killed and 200 wounded as a result of Operation Tidal Wave. The USAAF Eighth Air Force's B-17 bombers were called the "Flying Fortresses" because of their heavy defensive armament of ten to twelve machine guns eventually comprising up to thirteen heavy 12.7mm calibre, "light barrel" Browning M2 guns per bomber and armor plating in vital locations. At the same time production plants had to deal with a loss of experienced workers to the military, assimilating untrained workers, culling workers incapable of being trained, and utilizing unwilling forced labor. Una guida per la memoria", "Bombardamenti aerei subiti da Bologna Storia e Memoria di Bologna", "BOMBARDAMENTI AEREI .. SULLA CITTA DI PADOVA E PROVINCIA 1943 - 1945", "RIMINI in "Enciclopedia Italiana II Appendice" Treccani", "TREVISO in "Enciclopedia Italiana II Appendice" Treccani", "Cos il 10 giugno '44 Trieste si svegli sotto le bombe Cronaca Il Piccolo", "I bombardamenti tedeschi su Napoli 1943", "MESSINA in "Enciclopedia Italiana II Appendice" Treccani", "TRAPANI in "Enciclopedia Italiana II Appendice" Treccani", "Viterbo durante i periodo della Repubblica di Sal", "The Bombing of France 19401945 Exhibition", Newsreel from France Actualits on Paris Bombing, "Modern History: World War II, strategic bombing and the liberal-democratic mode of war", United States Army Center of Military History. atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki - Encyclopedia Britannica What was the most bombed English city in ww2? Records change on a daily basis and are not immediately published online. [250] In October 1945, Prince Fumimaro Konoe said the sinking of Japanese vessels by U.S. aircraft combined with the B-29 aerial mining campaign were just as effective as B-29 attacks on industry alone,[251] though he admitted, "the thing that brought about the determination to make peace was the prolonged bombing by the B-29s." [2][7], Belgrade was heavily bombed by the Luftwaffe on 6 April 1941, when more than 17,000 people were killed. The key development for the bombing of Japan was the B-29 Superfortress, which had an operational range of 1,500 miles (2,400km); almost 90% of the bombs (147,000 tons) dropped on the home islands of Japan were delivered by this bomber. The first raid of this type on Tokyo was on the night of 2324 February when 174 B-29s destroyed around one square mile (3km2) of the city. Noncombatant immunity and proportionality in use of force were insisted upon. [219] The Spanish Civil War also convinced Soviet war planners that the air force was most effective when used in close cooperation with ground forces. For eight months the Luftwaffe dropped bombs on London and other strategic cities across Britain. "[184], The devastating bombing raids of Dortmund on 12 March 1945 with 1,108 aircraft 748 Lancasters, 292 Halifaxes, 68 Mosquitos was a record attack on a single target in the whole of World War II. Spector, Ronald (1985). Secondary targets included Braunschweig, Lbeck, Rostock, Bremen, Kiel, Hanover, Frankfurt, Mannheim, Stuttgart, and Schweinfurt. [122] Hitler's No. As the Allies advanced across France and towards Germany from the West, Paris, Lige, Lille, and Antwerp also became targets. History of Europe - WWII, Atomic Bombs, Nrnberg Trials, and Iron [219], The main task of the 18th Air Army was to support the final offensive against Germany, but it also undertook raids against Berlin, Breslau, Danzig and Knigsberg. With 920 aircraft taking part, they dropped 700 tonnes of bombs there. In part because of their heavier armament and armor, they carried smaller bomb loads than British bombers. In Dalmatia, the Italian enclave of Zara suffered extensive bombing, which destroyed 60% of the city and killed about 1,000 of its 20,000 inhabitants, prompting most of the population to flee to mainland Italy (the town was later annexed to Yugoslavia). How many times was Birmingham bombed in ww2? Consequently, cyclical arguments, such as those advanced by Italian general and air power theorist Giulio Douhet, do not appear to violate any of the convention's provisions. Just over 10 per- Polskie bombardowanie lotnicze Gdaska | Tysol.pl", DeutschlandRadio Berlin MerkMal Der Bombenkrieg in Europa, "National Archives 15 May 1940 CAB 65/13/9", British Military Aviation in 1940 Part 4, "Great Air Battles: The Battle of Britain", "British Bombing Strategy in World War Two", "Hitlerv rozkaz k zahjen "baedekerovch" nlet", "RAF Bomber Command 748 Lancasters record attack (Dortmund) 12 March 1945", "List with names of the victims of the 3 March 1945 bombardment", "Bombing of the Bezuidenhout: 3 March 1945", "SPEZIA, La in "Enciclopedia Italiana II Appendice" Treccani", "MILANO in "Enciclopedia Italiana II Appendice" Treccani", "TORINO 1938|45. The diversion of German fighter planes and anti-aircraft 88 mm artillery from the eastern and western fronts was a significant result of the Allied strategic bombing campaign. Hastings, p. 352, quoting German post-war Statistical Office calculations. Planners targeted the Luftwaffe in an operation known as 'Big Week' (2025 February 1944) and succeeded brilliantly its major attacks came during the "Baby Blitz" period for the Luftwaffe over England, while losses for the Luftwaffe's day fighter forces were so heavy that both the twin-engined Zerstrergeschwader heavy fighter wings (the intended main anti-bomber force) and their replacement, single-engined Sturmgruppen of heavily armed Fw 190As became largely ineffective, clearing each force of bomber destroyers in their turn from Germany's skies throughout most of 1944. the German bombing effort and the declining capability of the German bomber force as it struggled to sustain support for the ground war with dwindling resources", according to Overy (. The Polish air force left Poland on 18 September 1939 due to the Soviet attack on 17 September 1939, and imminent capture of the Polish airstrips and aircraft stationed in eastern parts of Poland. It was no easy task to clear the bomb. Today, Laos is the most heavily bombed nation in history. Under pressure from Goering, Albert Kesselring, Wever's replacement, opted for a medium, all-purpose, twin-engine tactical bomber. [196]:190 The bombing campaign of Bucharest continued until August 1944, after which Romania joined the Allies following a coup by King Michael I against Ion Antonescu. Speer acknowledged that the RAF were hitting the right targets, and raids severely disrupted his plans to increase production to meet increasing attritional needs. The British were unsure of whether they could adequately retain or protect Malta. A much lower figure (51,526) is borne out by such evidence and "is much more consistent with the nature of Despite the lack of decisive success of this raid, approval was granted for further Abigails. [161] However, in 1939 the Bomber B program sought to produce a twin-engined strategic bomber that could carry nearly-equivalent bombloads of Allied four-engined heavy bombers, but as an advanced development of the pre-war Schnellbomber concept. German author Boog claims that with the arrival of German ground forces, the situation of Warsaw changed; under the Hague Convention, the city could be legitimately attacked as it was a defended city in the front line that refused calls to surrender. 426. 5 Attacks on U.S. Soil During World War II | HISTORY Italy, first as an Axis member and later as a German-occupied country, was heavily bombed by Allied forces for all the duration of the war. (2004). With all of this, the USAAF's commanders in Washington, D.C., and in Great Britain adopted the strategy of taking on the Luftwaffe head on, in larger and larger air raids by mutually defending bombers, flying over Germany, Austria, and France at high altitudes during the daytime. 1963), pp. The 'Blitz' - from the German term Blitzkrieg ('lightning war') - was the sustained campaign of aerial bombing attacks on British towns and cities carried out by the Luftwaffe (German Air Force) from September 1940 until May 1941. Conventionally, the air forces designated as "the target area" a circle having a radius of 1,000 feet (300m) around the aiming point of attack. The Battle of Britain began in early June 1940 with small scale bombing raids on Britain. The Blitz began on 7 September, 'Black Saturday', when German bombers attacked London, leaving 430 dead and . The bombing of Nanjing and Canton, which began on 22 and 23 September 1937, called forth widespread protests culminating in a resolution by the Far Eastern Advisory Committee of the League of Nations. The figure "bears no relation to the detailed wartime documentary evidence". The Blitz Around Britain - World War 2 | Imperial War Museums Britain was determined to keep fighting. Attacks on strategic targets also continued in lower-level daylight raids. Subsequent efforts were directed against V-weapons launch sites in France. The Kanalkampf of attacks on shipping and fighter skirmishes over the English Channel started on 4 July, and escalated on 10 July, a day which Dowding later proposed as the official start date for the Battle. [253], In the wake of this rejection, Stimson and George Marshall (the Army chief of staff) and Hap Arnold (head of the Army Air Forces) set the atomic bombing in motion. The He 177A entered service in April 1942. [115], Whilst German historian Horst Boog says British propaganda inflated the number of civilian casualties by a factor of 30,[79] contemporary newspaper reports show the Dutch legation in Paris initially estimated 100,000 people were killed,[116] the Dutch legation in New York later issued a revised figure of 30,000. Words cannot express the feelings of profound horror with which the news of these raids had been received by the whole civilized world. The Allies attacked oil installations, and controversial firebombings took place against Hamburg (1943), Dresden (1945), and other German cities.[36]. [249] A postwar Naval Ordnance Laboratory survey agreed, finding naval mines dropped by B-29s had accounted for 60% of all Japanese shipping losses in the last six months of the war. [183], By contrast, the United States Strategic Bombing Survey found attacks on waterways, beginning 23 September with strikes against the Dortmund-Ems Canal and Mittelland Canal, produced tremendous traffic problems on the Rhine River. The effects of the Tokyo firebombing proved the fears expressed by Admiral Yamamoto in 1939: "Japanese cities, being made of wood and paper, would burn very easily. Cluster bombs were the weapon of choice, hundreds of little bombs packed into canisters. For example, British Prime Minister Stanley Baldwin warned in 1932, "The bomber will always get through. The aircraft would be staggered so that they would arrive over the target in succession: the new technique of the "bomber stream". The bomb destroyed 60% of the city. The Most Bombed Country in WW2 #460 - YouTube As many as 200 Pomo were killed on the island and in the surrounding area. Ever. [142] From the night of 19/20 August night bombing targeted the aircraft industry, ports, harbours, and other strategic targets in towns and cities, including suburban areas around London. 17 Directive, issued 1 August 1940, established the conduct of war against Britain and specifically forbade the Luftwaffe from conducting terror raids. Heartland heroes: remembering World War II. Best Answer. That's roughly equivalent to the number of German citizens who died from Allied raids. Over five months 34,000 tons of bombs were dropped. Ian Dear, Michael Richard Daniell Foot (2001). On 30 May 1942, between 0047 and 0225 hours, in Operation Millennium 1,046 bombers dropped over 2,000 tons of high explosive and incendiaries on the medieval town of Cologne, and the resulting fires burned it from end to end. The Allies dropped 18,583 bombs on Thailand during the war, resulting in the death of 8,711 people and the destruction of 9,616 buildings. [103] For the Germans, the earliest directive from the Luftwaffe head Hermann Gring permitted restricted attacks upon warships anywhere, as well as upon troop transports at sea. In the end, thanks in part to the dehousing paper, it was this view which prevailed and Bomber Command would remain an important component of the British war effort up to the end of World War II. [239], In August 1942, the United States Fourteenth Air Force based in southern China undertook the first air raids in French Indochina. The bomb killed roughly 90,000166,000 people; half of these died quickly while the other half suffered lingering deaths. A much lower figure (51,526) is borne out by such evidence and "is much more consistent with the nature of the German bombing effort and the declining capability of the German bomber force as it struggled to sustain support for the ground war with dwindling resources", according to Overy (, US Strategic Bombing Survey: Statistical Appendix to Overall report (European War) (Feb 1947) table 1, German Deaths by aerial bombardment (It is not clear if these totals includes Austrians, of whom about 24,000 were killed (see, The 353,000 estimate is from Richard Overy, who explains this figure as follows (. The twin campaignsthe USAAF by day, the RAF by nightbuilt up into massive bombing of German industrial areas, notably the Ruhr, followed by attacks directly on cities such as Hamburg, Kassel, Pforzheim, Mainz and the often-criticized bombing of Dresden. [73] Similarly, the bombing of Frampol has been described as an experiment to test the German tactics and weapons effectiveness. However, after the successful Axis powers Crimean Campaign and overall deterioration of the Soviet position, Soviet attacks against Romania ceased. By 1952, the bombing was so complete that the U.S. Air Force had effectively run out of worthwhile targets. On 6 August Gring finalised plans for "Operation Eagle Attack" with his commanders: destruction of RAF Fighter Command across the south of England was to take four days, then bombing of military and economic targets was to systematically extend up to the Midlands until daylight attacks could proceed unhindered over the whole of Britain, then a major attack was to be made on London causing a crisis with refugees when the intended Operation Sea Lion invasion was due to begin. BBC Two - The Battle for Malta [151] The attack of 7 September 1940 did not entirely step over the line into a clear terror bombing effort since its primary target was the London docks, but there was clearly an assumed hope of terrorizing the London population. [158], This was the start of a British drift away from precision attacks on military targets and towards area bombing attacks on whole cities.[160]. Strategic bombing during World War II - Wikipedia Strategic bombing as a military strategy is distinct both from close air support of ground forces and from tactical air power. Laos - The Most Heavily Bombed Country On Earth - WorldAtlas the wickedness of the German enemy". Frampol was chosen as an experimental object, because test bombers, flying at low speed, weren't endangered by AA fire. 30,248 merchant mariners and 60,595 killed by bombing): 100,000: William Eckhardt, a three-page table of his war statistics printed in. Central Italy was left untouched for the first three years of war, but from 1943 onwards it was heavily bombed by USAAF, with heavy damage (usually due to inaccuracy in bombing) to a number of cities, including Livorno (57% of the city was destroyed or damaged, over 500 people were killed in June 1943), Civitavecchia, Grosseto, Terni (1,077 casualties),[210] Pisa (1,738 casualties),[211] Pescara (between 2,200 and 3,900 casualties), Ancona (1,182 casualties),[212] Viterbo (1,017 casualties)[213] and Isernia (about 500 casualties on 11 September 1943). The survey estimated that at a minimum 305,000 were killed in German cities due to bombing and estimated a minimum of 780,000 wounded.

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