Popular leader translates dmaggos; the verb dmaggein is rendered to seek popularity with. POSSESSION (ktma): what one has acquired and owns. 68. But if the Politics then predates the Nicomachean Ethics, the reference to the Politics at the end of the latter would have to be to an already completed and not just a projected text. (7) Just this happens in the case of the Spartan regime. See SUBJECTS. Or for one person to have authority over all the citizens, as it is generally understood. 114. There is no discussion of this question in the remainder of the Politics as we have it. Training in matters related to war should be practiced not for the sake of reducing to slavery those who do not merit it, but in the first place in order that they themselves will not become slaves to others; [1334a] next, so that they may seek leadership85 for the sake of benefiting the ruled, but not for the sake of mastery over everyone; and third, to be master over those who merit being slaves. Book 2 CHAPTER 1 (1) Since it is our intention to study the sort of political community that is superior to all for those capable of living as far as possible in the manner one would pray for,1 we should also investigate other regimes, both those in use in some of the cities that are said to be well managed and any others spoken about by certain persons that are held to be in a fine condition, in order that both what is correct in their condition and what is useful may be seenand further, that to seek something apart from them may not be held wholly to belong to those wishing to act the sophist,2 but that we may be held to enter into this inquiry because those regimes now available are in fact not in a fine condition. In relation to somefor example, the so-called Mixed Lydianthey [1340b] are in a state more of grief and apprehension; in relation to othersfor example, the relaxed harmoniesthey are softer of mind; they are in a middling and settled state in relation to one above all, this being what Dorian alone among the harmonies is held to make them; and Phrygian makes them inspired. The Politics is a product of that singular moment in the history of the West when traditional modes of thinking in every area were being uprooted by the new mode of thinking that had made its appearance in the Greek world under the name of philosophy. 85 DK. They distribute any surplus; the people take it and at the same time ask for more of the same. (5) Each of the citizens comes to have a thousand sons, though not as an individual, but each is in similar fashion the son of any of them; hence all will slight them in similar fashion. Women, Soldiers, Citizens: Plato and Aristotle on the Politics of Virility. Lord and OConnor (1991), 16590. Liberal renders eleutherioi, as in the expression the liberal arts; it is closely related to free (eleutheroi). (3) To strive for these things may be justified; it may also be unjustified. For if they have a desire beyond the necessary things, they will commit injustice in order to cure it(12) and not only for this reason, for they might desire merely the enjoyment54 that comes with pleasures unaccompanied by pains. (19) To prevent the stealing of common funds, then, let the transfer of funds occur in the presence of all the citizens, and let records of this be deposited with each clan, company,82 and tribe. 1989. Politique et philosophie chez Aristotle. 12. I read politn (among the citizens) with one MSS rather than politikn with most MSS and Dreizehnter. For the traditional view of the earliest men as earthborn, see Plato, Statesman 271a ff., Menexenus 237d38b; for the view that they were survivors of a universal cataclysm, Laws 676a ff. 62. Hence when another person is superior on the basis of virtue and of the capacity that acts to achieve the best things, it is noble to follow this person and just to obey him. 13 ff. (5) Why a city that is going to exist happily and be excellent should partake of these virtues, then, is evident. 2 maps The moderns have not only proven unable to lay to rest the human impulses that stimulate utopian thinking, but have themselves fostered forms of utopianism more virulent and more destructive of sensible politics than anything known in the premodern world. For there exists a certain function of a city too, so that the city most capable of bringing this to completion is the one that must be supposed the greatestjust as one might assert that Hippocrates is greater not as a human being but as a doctor than someone excelling him in bodily size. If this file has great quality, you can discuss anything about it here! What belongs in common to the most people is accorded the least care: they take thought for their own things above all, and less about things common, or only so much as falls to each individually. 1141b38. 77. Hence where there are a number of persons in the governing body, many legislative measures of a popular sort are advantageous, such as having offices be for six months, so that all those who are similar may take part in them. (13) So according to this argument the multitude ought not to be given authority either over the choice of officials or over their auditing. There is no discussion of this sort in the remainder of the Politics as we have it. = Nicomachean Ethics. (5) The element of nobility, not what is beastlike, should have the leading role. 104. In fact, however, one should add citizens up to the point where the multitude predominates over the notables and the middling elements and not proceed beyond this. An understanding of the intention and scope of Aristotles enterprise is essential if the Politics is to be appreciated in its own terms rather than on the basis of current preconceptions of the nature of its subject. (30) Moreover, some bring accusations against certain persons holding offices and assert that the people should judge; the invitation is gladly accepted, and all the offices are thus overthrown. Crete had been the seat of the maritime empire established by the semi-mythical Minos (cf. The reference would seem to be particularly to Thebes (cf. 61. CHAPTER 3 (1) But even if it is best for the community to be as far as possible a unity, even this does not appear to be proved by the argument that it will follow if all say mine and not mine at the same time; for Socrates supposes this is an indication of the city being completely one. 3.13.17. For the citizens guard kings with their own arms, while a foreign element guards the tyrant, since the former rule willing persons in accordance with law, while the latter rule unwilling persons. But there is also a fifth kind of kingship, when one person has authority over all matters, just as each nation and each city has authority over common matters, with an arrangement that resembles household management. Lustrum 32 (1990): 177282. 102. And this is true: not all those are to be regarded as citizens without whom there would not be a city, since children are not citizens in the same sense that men are; the latter are unqualifiedly, but the former only by way of a presuppositionthey are citizens, but incomplete ones. So twelve modes arise, apart from the [other] two conjunctions.65 (19) Of these systems of selection two are popular: for all to select from all by election or by lot66 (or by both, some of the offices being selected by lot, others by election). Since aristocracy tries to assign preeminence to the best of the citizens, it is asserted that oligarchies too are [1294a] made up particularly of gentlemen. This is what is called the city or the political community. Now in saying this he is perhaps not wrong, for there may be persons who are incapable of being educated and becoming excellent men. This was plainly recognized by some of former times, as in the legislation of Solon,51 and others have a law which forbids the acquisition of land in whatever amount one wishes. But the city is a community of similar persons, for the sake of a life that is the best possible. Chytrus was evidently a mainland dependency of the island city of Clazomenae; Notium was the port of Colophon. The virtue of the excellent citizen must exist in all, for it is necessarily in this way that the city is excellent, but this is impossible in the case of the virtue of the good man, unless all the citizens of an excellent city are necessarily good men. Ath. Aristotle's "Politics": Second Edition Carnes Lord (ed.) As mentioned earlier, there is considerable internal evidence in the Politics to support the hypothesis that an extensive portion of the original text has been lost. 72. As for the kinds of oligarchy, when a larger number of persons owns property, but in lesser amounts and not overly much, this is the first kind of oligarchy. But there is another connected with it. (17) It is clear, therefore, that all the pursuits that have to do with war are to be regarded as fine, though not as the highest end of all, but rather as being for the sake of that. (4) Now that all decide concerning all is characteristically popular; for the people seek this sort of equality. But it necessarily makes a difference: women are a part amounting to a half of the free persons, and from the children come those who are partners in the regime (1.13.1260b820). To the second category belong a series of catalogues or compilations of historical and other information, and a large number of more or less elaborate and finished treatises on all subjects. According to the famous tale recounted by Strabo and Plutarch,31 Aristotles library, following the death of Theophrastus, his successor as head of the Lyceum, was willed to a certain Neleus, who removed it from Athens to the town of Scepsis in Asia Minor. 6.7. 4.15.1213. In any case, it makes sense to suppose that the treatises served also, or even primarily, as reference works which were treated to some extent as the common property of the school and were available for the use of students. (7) Wealth will necessarily be honored in a regime of this sort, particularly if they are dominated by the women, as is the case with most stocks that are fond of soldiering and war (excluding the Celts and any others that openly honor sexual relations among males). ORDER (kosmos): order, beauty, adornment (also rendered ordered beauty); the visible universe or cosmos (rendered universe). Alternatively, the damage might have occurred in the course of military events or political disturbances in Athensfor which we in fact have some evidence.40 Finally, it is possible that a later hand or hands made the alteration at some time during the early third century, along with other changes intended to repair the apparent disorder of the work, fill in missing pieces, or provide supplementary information. 10, 12.1. (8) Tyrannies arose more frequently earlier than now also because great offices were in the hands of individualsas in Miletus one arose from the presidency, for the president had authority over many and great matters.40 This happened further because cities then were not large: the people lived in the fields and were occupied by their work, while those who were heads of the people, when they became expert in military matters, attempted to set up a tyranny. 30. [Translation and commentary] Ross, W. D. 1957. Or should the fact that they are few be investigated with a view to the work involvedwhether they are capable of administering the city, or whether there is a multitude of them large enough to form a city? Marsiliuss Defender of the Peace, in its bold attack on the political role of the Church and priesthood, anticipated by two centuries aspects of the Protestant Reformation, and developed a theory of political sovereignty that has strikingly popular overtones.71 The Politics would continue to have resonance in Protestant Europe, especially Germany, well into the eighteenth century.72 Yet what the Politics gained in academic respectability during this period, it lost in real intellectual authority and influence. 33. (14) One might plausibly conceive this to be the reason, then, for their seeking happiness through these pleasures, though as far as sharing in music is concerned, it is not on this account only, but also because music is useful with a view to rest, as it seems. 41. The interpretation of this passage has been much disputed. For these are surely held to pursue equality above all others, and so they used to ostracize and banish for fixed periods from the city those who were held to be preeminent in power on account of wealth or abundance of friends or some other kind of political strength.65 (16) The tale is told that the Argonauts left Heracles behind for this sort of reason: the Argo was unwilling to have him on board because he so exceeded the other sailors.66 Hence also those who criticize tyranny and the advice Periander gave to Thrasyboulus must not be supposed to be simply correct in their censure. Let us speak first of democracyfor how one should do this will become evident also for the regime that corresponds to it, the one some call oligarchy. Or, as it is generally understood, when kingship should be established. The rendering here gives the normal meaning of nomizein. 108. Aristotle appears to refer to melancholicspersons susceptible to episodes of inspired or enthusiastic madness because of a physiological condition involving an excess of black bile (see [Aristotle,] Problems 30.1). Cf. The eleventh chapter of book 1 is perhaps the most important instance of such a passage, but there are others of varying length scattered throughout the work. There it was hidden in a cellar by Neleuss heirs, then neglected and virtually forgotten until the beginning of the first century BC. 2930, 3.14.34. 1985. Types of Regime and What Preserves and Destroys Them (books 45) A. Popular leadership is twofold. For Charicles and those around him became strong by seeking popularity with the thirty, and Phrynichus and those around him among the four hundred in the same manner.48 The other is when those in the oligarchy seek popularity with the mass, as at Larisa, for example, where the regime guardians49 sought popularity with the mass on account of their being elected, and in all oligarchies where those who elect to offices are not those from whom the officials are drawn, but the offices are filled from those with large assessments or those of certain clubs, and election is by those having heavy arms or by the people (which was the case at Abydus).50 (7) This also happens wherever the courts are not drawn from the governing body; for in seeking popularity with a view to judicial decisions they make a revolution in the regime, as occurred at Heracleia on the Black Sea.51 It happens further when some draw the oligarchy into fewer hands, for those who seek equality are compelled to bring in the people to assist them. Aristotle is generally taken to argue that the offices at Tarentum were of two kinds, those chosen by election and those chosen by lot; yet such an arrangement would not have been particularly distinctive. It is held to be absurd for mean persons to have authority over greater matters than the respectable; but auditing and the choice of officials are a very great thing, and in some regimes, as was said, these are given to the people, for the assembly has authority over everything of this sort. 27. For they look to both of these things when they electparticularly in the case of the greatest offices, kings and generals. Cf. PEOPLE (dmos): the body of the people, the public; the common people or lower classes of a city; the government of the common people, or democracy (this sense is translated rule of the people). (13) But to be educated relative to the regime is not to do the things that oligarchs or those who want democracy enjoy, but rather the things by which the former will be able to run an oligarchy and the latter to have a regime that is run democratically. See also G. E. L. Owen, The Platonism of Aristotle, in Logic, Science, and Dialectic (Ithaca, NY, 1986), 20020; and Pierre Pellegrin, La Politique dAristote: Unit et fractures, in Aubenque 1993, 334, with the remarks of Aubenque, viiix. (27) A precaution common to every sort of monarchy is to make no single person great but where necessary to elevate several persons, as they will watch one another. Hence those of earlier times rightly rejected the use of it by the young and free, although they had used it before. ADMINISTER (oikein): dwell in and govern after the fashion of a household (oikos). 71. 2.2. (6) Beside this there is another form of monarchythe kingships that exist among some of the barbarians. Aristotles Politics: Critical Essays. (25) Further, he must always show himself to be seriously attentive to the things pertaining to the gods. It is true that the Eleven at Athens (the officials in charge of prisons) do appear to have had some role in the collection of public debts, but the actioners nevertheless constituted a separate magistracy. (14) The ends are also the same there as in connection with tyrannies and kingships; for the wealth and honor belonging to monarchs are of such a magnitude that all strive after them. (4) But it is in this that the excellent men differ from each of the many individually, just as some assert beautiful persons differ from those who are not beautiful, and things painted by art from genuine things, by bringing together things scattered and separated into one; for taken separately, at any rate, this persons eye will be more beautiful than the painted one, as will another part of another person. (2) For all has a double sense. In general, the endings of book rolls are likely places for interpolation, and there are lengthy passages at the end of books 2 and 5 that arouse suspicion; the final paragraph of book 8 is also dubious. Panaetius is also mentioned in 10.6. Politics Book II Summary & Analysis | SparkNotes At any rate, he lacks trust in them as not being sufficiently good men; and it is on this account that they repeatedly send them on embassies accompanied by their enemies, and hold that factional conflict between the kings means preservation for the city.92 The legislation concerning common messesthe so-called friends messes93 was also not finely handled by the one who first established it. 73. (9) Hence while most of the usages existing among most cities are, so to speak, a mere jumble, nevertheless if the laws anywhere look to one thing, it is domination that all of them aim at. (7) Hence it should share in both of these. (3) With a view to bearing up under enemies more easily, they should be capable of a ready defense in both elements land and seaif they are to preserve themselves. (16) Both belong to the good man too, as well as whatever kind of moderation and justice is characteristic of ruling. 61. 2. Mission. University of Chicago Press ( 2013 ) Copy BIBTEX Abstract One of the fundamental works of Western political thought, Aristotle's masterwork is the first systematic treatise on the science of politics. (15) Accordingly, there is in everyone by nature an impulse toward this sort of community. And the tale told by the ancients about flutes is a reasonable one. 10.13. HELOTRY (heilteia): the institution of agricultural serfdom at Sparta based on the distinct class of persons known as helots (heiltai). That Aristotle acted as Alexanders personal tutor by no means represents the consensus of his biographical tradition, and is not supported by any contemporary sources.8 As regards philosophical affiliation, it has been persuasively argued that Alexanders political ideas were closer to Cynic cosmopolitanism than to the views of Plato or Aristotle.9 The most plausible explanation is that Aristotle was summoned by Philip to establish a school for the education of the sons of the Macedonian gentry, and only secondarily, if at all, for the sake of Alexander. If the poor by the fact of being the majority distribute among themselves the things of the wealthy, is this not unjust? (3) It was said in our initial discourses, where household management and mastery were discussed, that man is by nature a political animal. Varieties of democracy and oligarchy (4.46) 3. Other evidence seems to confirm that Andronicuss editorial interventions may have been fairly wide-ranging. (17) For frequently the assessment is arranged at first with a view to existing circumstances, so that the few will share in the oligarchy or middling persons in the polity; and it then happens that the same properties come to merit an assessment many times as great, as a result of prosperity that arises from peace or some other sort of good fortune, so that all citizens come to share in all offices. (7) The reason this happened then but does not now is that the popular leaders then came from those who served as generals, and were not particularly skilled at speaking, whereas now with the growth of rhetoric those who are capable speakers act as popular leaders, but on account of their inexperience in military matters they do not attempt anything, though this may have happened somewhere in rare cases. PDF ARISTOTLE S POLITICS - Cambridge University Press & Assessment This is clear in communities of fellow travelers, most of whom are always quarreling as a result of friction with one another over everyday and small matters. (24) Those who suppose they are capable of taking control of the office also in a manner attack on account of contempt: they make the attempt easily, as they feel themselves capable and feel contempt for the danger on account of their capacity. Moraux, Listes, 22147. Here and in the rest of this chapter, politeia is frequently taken to be used in its generic sense of regime rather than in its specific sense of polity, though I think wrongly (consider particularly the reference to polities which seems implicit in the text in a67). Must the family rule as kings also? The well-blended harmony would seem to be Mixed Lydian, which forms a mean between the extremes of taut Lydian (syntonolydisti) and Phrygian on the one hand and the relaxed Lydian and Ionian harmonies on the other; and the second of the one or two well-constituted harmonies would seem to be Dorian (see 8.5. Cf. The tyranny of Orthagoras at Sicyon was instituted in 670 BC; Cleisthenes was his great-grandson. 100. (13) There are two aims, the possible and the appropriate; individuals should undertake things possible and appropriate for them. For he asserts that just as the warp is made of a different kind of wool from the woof, so the rulers should stand with respect to the ruled.38 (15) And since he permits the whole of ones property to increase as much as fivefold,39 why should this not be allowed up to a certain point with respect to land? For some raise the question whether it is harmful or advantageous for cities to change traditional laws, if some other one should be better. In Ambracia, for example, the assessment was small, and eventually they came to hold office with none at all, the assumption being that there was little or no difference between none and a small one.14 (11) Dissimilarity of stock is also conducive to factional conflict, until a cooperative spirit develops.15 For just as a city does not arise from any chance multitude, so it does not arise in any chance period of time. (3) Now if the farmers were of a different class, the approach would be different and easier, but if the citizens undertake the labor for themselves, the arrangements concerning property would give rise to many resentments. (4) Men engage in factional conflict through fear, both when they have committed injustice and are frightened of paying the penalty, and when they are about to suffer injustice and wish to forestall itas at Rhodes, where the notables joined together against the people on account of the suits being brought against them.7 (5) Through contempt as well men engage in factional conflict and attack one anotherin oligarchies, for example, when those not taking part in the regime are a majority (for they suppose themselves superior), and in democracies, when the well off are contemptuous of the disorder and anarchy. At the risk of some confusion, I have translated the term as the art of money-making wherever it clearly bears the negative sense. 3.5.1112b1114. 32. Plato, Republic 546c. 3.1. = Poetics. (7) For if the city is a type of community, and if it is a community of citizens in a regime, if the regime becomes and remains different in kind, it might be held that the city as well is necessarily not the same. Lord 1991, 64 n. 2, Saunders 1995, 6667. The related verb dokein (seem) is generally translated to hold or to resolve. RESPECTABLE (epieiks): decent, fair, reasonable, equitable; as a substantive, a person of the upper or educated classes. R REFINED (charieis): graceful, elegant, appealing; a term used euphemistically of the upper or educated classes. (13) These things, so far as they go, may stand as a preface to our discourse. Nothing is known of this event. Or and height generally is more preeminent than virtue, as it is usually understood. 38. (15) How the best and first sort of democracy should be instituted, then, has been spoken of; how the others should be instituted is also evident. At any rate, just as we assert that a chorus which is at one time comic and at another tragic is different even though the human beings in it are often the same, (8) it is similar with any other community and any compound, when the compound takes a different formfor example, we would say that the mode is different even when the notes are the same, if it is at one time Dorian and at another Phrygian.12 (9) If this is indeed the case, it is evident that it is looking to the regime above all that the city must be said to be the same; the name13 one calls it can be different or the same no matter whether the same human beings inhabit it or altogether different ones.

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